Business in India Essay Example for Free

Business in India Essay 1. Private property-the right to own resources and bequeath property 2. Freedom of enterprise-own a business 3. Freedom of economic choice-work/not work, spend/not spend 4. Role of self-interest a. People are by nature economic creatures b. Self-interest is a fundamental characteristic of people 5. Competitive market system a. Many buyers and sellers b. Market participants, buyers and sellers, have little control over price c. Competition performs the organizing and controlling functions for a market economy 6. Limited government b. Mercantilism: the law gives preference and special benefits to the sector of the economy owned by the government. b. Free-market capitalism: A system of economics that minimizes government intervention and maximizes the role of the market. Laissez-faire is a more extensive form of free-market capitalism where the role of the state is limited to protecting property rights Pros The pros and cons of capitalism versus socialism have been debated for hundreds of years and there is a lot of misinformation out there. Capitalism increases the opportunities in the marketplace for personal economic growth. It increases opportunities for entrepreneurs to increase their personal wealth and for societies to grow as well. Hard work is rewarded under a capitalist economy. In a capitalist economy, consumers can work toward riches and financial freedom. A competitive market results from capitalism and consumers are presented with a wide array of products and services to choose from. Consumers and companies regulate the free market. This is often seen as one of the strengths of a capitalist society. Cons Capital ist economies are money-driven without much regard for people unless they are owners or shareholders of business firms. In a capitalist economy, there is fierce competition and, perhaps, unfair competition. There is a tendency, in capitalist economies, for big companies to get bigger and for monopolistic behavior to occur. Unfair labor practices may occur since companies are driven by the profit motive. Since capitalism requires continual growth, environmental damage may occur as the resources of the earth are depleted. Some say capitalism makes the rich richer. a.  Globalization is the worldwide movement toward economic, financial, trade, and communications integration. b. Connectivity: Localities being connected with the world by breaking national boundaries; forging of links between one society and another, and between one country and another through international transmission of knowledge, literature, technology, culture and information. Free Trade: Free trade between countries; absence of excessive governmental control over trade; Multinational corporations and A Composite Process: Integration of nation-states across the world by common economic, commercial, political, cultural a nd technological ties; creation of a new world order with no national boundaries; c. Pros: Because of globalization, a lot of information is shared across the world. Various cultures can be understood and acknowledged on global level. Countries sharing resources. People can buy a thing which is not local produced and find a cheaper and good quality product in markets. Globalization leads to higher employment since developed countries outsource jobs to under-developed countries. Cons: higher competitive to those local sellers. Since the outset of globalization, free trade between nations has been established, this means that worldwide trade lead these broad products have a cheaper price at the same time it will raid the local market and decrease the local price level. That can make the rich richer and left the poor poorer. Because the other side is multiple cultures will let local country loss its features. More young people just know the other countries goods and left their own specials. Like New York is a multi-culture city in American. d. Globalization is an economic process corporations move money, factories and goods around the planet at ever more rapid rates of speed, searching for cheaper labor, cheaper raw materials, and weak consumer , labor and environmental protection. Globalism is a political attitude ad Globalism appeals to the libertarian Right because this group mistakenly equates the liquidation of nations with a reduction in the power of their governments. But this does not follow. Open borders, a. Sex is biologically determined and it is cannot be changed but gender is socialized and it is variable through time and cultures. b. Men always work more than woman. In most families men is a leader. Women are always been looked as a disadvantaged group. c. Feminism is an activity that women want to get the equity rights with men in social, company and life. It is also a spiritual to tell the  women around world need to have courage, confidence, independence, and women need believe they can do the thing as same as men do. d. Since feminism that lead higher divorce rate and more girls do abortion with â€Å"my body, my choice† but at the same time it is very harmful to our body so it is not an independent behavior. a. Family is a basic social group through bonds of kinship or marriage, present in all societies. The sociology of the family examines the family, as an institution and unit of socialization

Concept Of Motivation

Concept Of Motivation This essay discusses the concept of motivation and its implications for the organisations. The author defines the theory of motivation and then reviews some of the theories (i.e. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs, Expectancy Theory, McGregors Theory X and Y, Hertzbergs Two-Factor Theory) that are significant to understand the human behaviour in the organisations. Further the essay provides arguments for the existing value of the concept of motivation for the managers and discusses the alternatives that are available for the managers to use the knowledge and develop strategies for increasing motivation at the workplace. At the end of the essay the author mentions limitations that still exist. Introduction: what is Motivation? The world was interested in building and studying the theories of motivation from the early 1950s, with the development of industrialisation and an appearance of mass manufacture. At the start, theories were aimed to increase the levels of production at the assembly lin es and the employees were motivated by basic needs and did not possess any power. The processes were monotonous and a set of tangible factors drove the workers to perform. As the job design changed, new theories were built to support the concept of motivation. The studies of motivation mainly focused on what motivated people and how the employees were motivated. This led to the division of the theories in 2 formats: content and process theories. Before these theories will be discussed in this essay, the concept of motivation should be defined: Motivation is a process in which a person is triggered to work for the achievement of his own aims and goals. Persons determination to perform and his/her effort are designed to satisfy his/her needs, e.g. get tangible rewards (an extrinsic motivation), or alternatively, he/she is interested in the job itself and the tasks (an intrinsic motivation). Overview of theories of motivation: The motivation theories are significant in sociology as they give a rational explanation on five patterns of behaviour of people in the organisation, based on their needs, reinforcement, cognitions, job characteristics and feelings /emotions. (Kreitner Kinicki, 2001) To discuss the value of the motivation theories in understanding the behaviour of the employees at the workplace, some of them should be described further. Content theories The main theories that are studied and can be used in the working environment are Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (1943), McGregors Theory X and Y and Herzbergs Two Factor theory (1968). According to the Maslows Hierarchy of Needs, individuals are driven by five needs, which serve as a basis for their effort in work. Starting from the physiological needs, after the satisfaction takes place, the individuals move up the next levels of the hierarchy, which are safety, belongingness love, esteem and self -actualisation needs. Therefore this theory suggested that people are motivated by basic to complicated needs. The theory is still used today, though it does not cover all the aspects of the concept. (Maslow, 1970) Theory X and Y suggests that there are two patterns of behaviour in the organisation. Theory X says that the employees are not willing to work and do not show any interest in the job. They are forced and controlled by the management who may offer remuneration or alternatively leave without it. Therefore this acts as a motivator for work. Theory Y suggests that the employees can control themselves and can be driven by their own goals and are responsible for their work and efforts. (McGregor, 1987) Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory suggests that various factors exist that can motivate employees, however, there are other factors, named hygiene which may dissatisfy the employees and in that case must be altered. The motivating and hygiene factors have different meanings in the organisation, the absence of one of these factors can brea k the balance of being motivated and satisfied at the same time. The motivating factors include recognition, tasks and success, alternatively the hygiene factors are job conditions, remuneration and company policy. (Robbins, 2001) Process theories From the process theories, the focus of this essay will be on Expectancy Theory and Goal-Setting Theory. According to Robbins (2001), Vrooms Expectancy Theory, peoples motivation is activated only if the energy spent on the work leads to a good performance and consequently, the performance leads to bonuses and rewards. Therefore, this theory aids to understand why some workers do not put much effort in their work, as they are de-motivated from the beginning, knowing that good performance is not likely to be achieved and/or rewarded. Accordingly, the performance rewards link has issues when the individuals do not see themselves capable of receiving rewards due to factors as incompetence or personal relations with the management and co-workers. When eventually the rewards are received, they can appear unattractive to the individuals thus cause frustration at the workplace. Goal Setting Theory developed by Locke (1968) suggests that the individuals are greater motivated when the goals are set by managers or by the individuals themselves when they are closely engaged in the processes at the workplace, rather than when the individuals do not see clearly what their efforts are directed at and what the management expects from them. Thus, the employees behaviou r suggests that they like to be guided by the managers and they achieve greater results even if the work is complicated. Moreover, the theory suggests that a feedback should be provided for the work done, which makes the workers willing to do the job, as they appreciate being commented on their performance. (Robbins, 2001) Application of the theories to practice The existence of multiple motivation theories makes it difficult to find the ideal one that can be applied to the organisation. This is due to the limitations and irrelevance of some of them in the modern work environments. To derive the value of each of the theories, a contingency matrix is used by the managers as a guideline on which of the theories to apply at the workplace to enhance performance and provide job fulfillment. For example, the Expectancy theory applied in the organisation activates the employee for action, effort and can increase an employee turnover. One of the most applicable theories is Hackman and Oldha ms (1980) theory that is a content theory, as it affects both effort and routine work, fulfillment, employee turnover and the reasons for frustration, as the theory is based on the job characteristics and encourages the managers to create interesting jobs at the workplace. (Kreitner Kinicki, 2001) Most of the motivation theories that are adapted in the organisations have to be altered to fit into the organizational context. They are used by managers for the assessment of motivation at the workplace and to find means of improving it by satisfying the needs of the employees or alternatively trigger them to work and perform. It is a process that changes with the time and new tendencies. Therefore it is essential to alter the job designs and introduce new benefits, e.g. flexible hours, possibility to work from home, regular skills assessments, informal communication, and to prevent a strict top-down communication between the manager and the colleagues. Value for managers The studying of the theories of motivation bring a great value for managers as was discussed above, as the concept is used on practice to analyse peoples behaviour, despite of existence of some pitfalls. The theories work on practice, when supported by contemporary theories, and they serve as a foundation for building strategies to increase motivation at the workplace. The old theories are a base for new theories; therefore their meaning is not lost. E.g. the contemporary theory developed by Ritchie and Martin divide the employees in high-need and low-need level individuals and assess their desire to be motivated by both tangible and intangible rewards, an interest, achievement, recognition, self-development, variety change, creativity, social contacts, money, structure and others. This approach serves as a useful tool for the managers to assess performance in their organsiations nowadays. (Buchanan Huczynski, 2003) And moreover, improve the motivation by introducing the rewards an d recognition schemes. The employees may be rewarded either individually or as a part of the group. Individual rewards are limited by the skills that he person possesses and can be increased only if a persons productivity increases. Kerrin Oliver, 2002, suggest that rewarding the group may have concerns with the theories of motivation but people engage in the processes, collaborate with their colleagues, set their goals in a competitive environment, have a potential for their creativity to be developed and all of this can serve as motivators and bring satisfaction from the job performed. The rewards should be then based on a both individual productivity and the performance of the group. Alternatively, managers are capable of designing the job for the employees and thus motivate them to work. According to theory of Hackman and Oldham (1980) described by Kreitner Kinicki, 2001, the job must offer an application of different skills, the tasks must be engaging and important in the pro cess, a substantial level of autonomy should be allowed and the feedback available. This will lead to a greater willingness to accept responsibilities and give a satisfaction from the job and result in a high motivation. Managers have an opportunity to analyse their style of control and behaviour using McGregors Theory X and Theory Y approach and thus choose the way the work is facilitated at the workplace, either by strict control or collaboration and empowerment. Gradual development of the motivation concepts led the managers from the strict rules of the assembly line to the empowerment and allowance of an autonomy and creativity at the workplace, thus enhancing the performance of the organisation as a whole. Limitations However, the following limitations exist that cannot be avoided in the studies of the motivation theories: ? The development of negative behaviour in the organisation hostility, obedience and lack of innovation when every single individual is trying to achieve his own goals collectively to the goals of the organisation. The competition leads to hostility, de-motivated people do not have any potential to progress if they are not satisfied. Punishments as motivation to work leads to obedience and stagnation in the organisation ? It is a time-consuming process to understand what really motivates each individual at the workplace as the theories were initially developed for the assembly lines when motivation factors did not vary. The theories have to be altered and further developed to be applied in the organisations ? Motivation theories seem inapplicable as sometimes it is obvious that nowadays people are driven by tangible rewards, i.e. they are in a pursuit of wealth which makes all the theories irrelevant

Fear of Failure in The Catcher In The Rye Essay -- Catcher Rye Essays

Fear of Failure in The Catcher In The Rye      Ã‚  Ã‚   Holden Caulfield, the main character in J.D. Salinger's novel, The Catcher In The Rye, feels that he needs to protect people around him, because he failed to protect his brother Allie from death. Holden feels that he has to care for those close to him. He watches over Jane, Phoebe, and even Mrs. Murrow when he meets her on the train. Holden tries to shield these people from distress. He does not want to fail anyone else.    Returning back home from getting kicked out of Pencey, Holden meets the mother of Ernest Murrow, a classmate of his, on the train. They introduce themselves and start talking about Ernest and how he is like in school. Holden did not tell Mrs. Murrow about Ernest's misbehavior at school because he did not want her to think negatively of her son. Holden feels that he is a failure and that his own parents are ashamed of him. He does not want Mrs.Murrow to feel ashamed of her own son and so he lies to her. He wanted to protect her from the truth about her son: "Her son was doubtless the bigges...

Buy Essay Online: Odysseus’ Struggle Against the Sea in Homers Odyssey

Odysseus’ Struggle Against the Sea in Homer's Odyssey  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Greek’s conception of the universe was anchored in the ever presence of the sea and they imagined the farthest limits of the earth to be a wide expanse of water. While enabling them to be a sea-faring people, the ocean also forced them to face the constant threat of becoming shipwrecked and dying at sea. In face of the threat posed by the sea, the Greeks sought to demonstrate that the forces of nature must be endured by man, and more importantly, that these forces must also be overcome by his efforts, his action, and his intelligence. In Homer's Odyssey, it is upon the medium of the sea that Odysseus faces his most dehumanizing struggles. At the onset of the epic, it is set forth that it is upon the ocean that Odysseus' struggle takes place. "On the ocean he [Odysseus] suffered many pains within his heart,/ Striving for his life." (1.4-5) His fight against the sea is literally a struggle against Poseidon. Odysseus must undergo such strife for many years at sea, for "all the gods pitied him,/ Except Poseidon, who contended unremittingly/ With godlike Odysseus, till the man reached his own land." (1.19-20). Poseidon pursues him with relentless malice for he remains "enraged about the Cyclops whom [Odysseus] blinded in the eye,/ Godlike Polyphemos, who possesses the greatest strength/ Of all Cyclopes. The nymph Thoosa gave him birth,/ The daughter of Phorcys, ruler over the barren sea,/ In hollow caves, after she had lain with Poseidon." (1.67-73) Poseidon ensures that his element becomes a constant threat and obstacle to Odysseus because Odysseus not only blinded Polyphemos but also because he had the audacity to boast about it. Poseidon's curse is a desire... ...the obstacles of the sea can be overcome for in reality, the sea is forever encroaching upon the sands of civilization. Works Cited and Consulted Bloom, Harold , Homer's Odyssey: Edited and with an Introduction, NY, Chelsea House 1988 Heubeck, Alfred, J.B. Hainsworth, et al. A commentary on Homer's Odyssey. 3 Vols. Oxford PA4167 .H4813 1988 Jones, Peter V. Homer's Odyssey : a companion to the translation of Richmond Lattimore. Carbondale, IL : Southern Illinois University Press, c1988. PA4167 .J66 1988 Peradotto, John , Odysseus’ Struggle in the Odyssey, Princeton UP 1997 Stanford, William Bedell. Homer's Odyssey. 2 Vols. Macmillan Thalmann, William G., The Odyssey : an epic of return. New York : Twayne Publishers. PA4167 .T45 1992 Tracy, Stephen V., The story of the Odyssey. Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, c1990. PA4167 .T7 1990

Eating Disorders: Their Dark Sides :: essays research papers fc

"Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder on an overwhelming dread of becoming fat. The result of this unfounded fear is self-starvation and major weight loss. In addition, the undernourishment may cause hormonal disturbances, anemia, heart problems, brittle bones and many other problems, some of which are life-threatening ("Anorexia Nervosa," 1). Bulimia is an eating disorder that is psychological in origin and can have dire physical consequences. While anorexics starve themselves, bulimics binge on food and then purge by self-induced vomiting. Bulimics also frequently use diet pills, laxatives, and diuretics to reduce their weight. The purging may serve two purposes: preventing weight gain and also temporarily relieving depression and other negative feelings ("Bulimia," 1)." These eating disorders are a major issue in society today due to society’s stereotypical view of women and young teenage girls, in, but many cases’ men are affected too.First, an eating disorder is an illness that affects several of the United States population because society has driven many people to be self-conscience about their appearance. For example, eight million people in the United States suffer from eating disorders ("The Secret Language of Eating Disorders," 1). Furthermore, 3% of all young women suffer from anorexia and 3-4% suffer from bulimia ("The Secret Language of Eating Disorders," 1). This proves that many women and teenage girls are affected because many are afraid of becoming fat and "unacceptable" to society’s view on women in general. In addition, 1% of boys and young men suffer from eating disorders, and their cases are becoming more common ("The Secret Language of Eating Disorders," 1). Also, it is a disorder that crosses racial and economical lines, those who succumb to compulsive starving or binge eating are males (Lang, 1). This shows that today’s society has also affected men’s stereo-typical view of their appearance and weight. Thus, eating disorders not only affect women, they also affect men, in which we are seeing more cases of every day.Second, victims of eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia have many warning signs which help people notice the signs of these eating disorders. For instance, anorexia nervosa has the following symptoms: significant weight loss, excessive dieting and exercising, and constipation ("Anorexia Nervosa", 2). Also, bulimia nervosa has the following symptoms: makes excuses to go to the bathroom after meals, and eats large amounts of food on the spur of the moment ("Bulimia Nervosa", 2).

Globalism

I am writing today to inform you about Globalism. I will begin with . â€Å"In 1962, the Canadian communications theorist Marshall McLuhan predicted the electronic transformation of the planet earth into a â€Å"global village†. In the global village, communication between geographically remote parts of the world would be almost instantaneous, and every important new development—technological, ecological, political, economic, and intellectual—would affect every villager to some degree.Social and geographic mobility, receptivity to change, and a sense of collectivity would be the hallmarks of this new world community. Over the past four decades, McLuhan’s futuristic vision has become a reality† (Fiero). Through the decades art has been such a great form of expression for all, from the people who create, to the people who just like to look or collect. Art has also gone through such an incredible form of change. When I think of art I think of Vincent V an Gogh, Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dali, Donatello, ect. These are the most prominent artists of the last thousand years.But now there is so much more that people can do with art because of modern technology as well as the freedom of expression that, in my opinion, has made artists in this century a little more creative. â€Å"While accelerated by electronic technology, it owes much to a broad array of late twentieth-century developments: the success of anticolonial movements, the fall of the Berlin Wall and subsequent collapse of Soviet communism, and the end of the cold war. With the elimination of these obstacles to freedom of communication among the populations of the earth, global cultural integration became a possibility, than a reality† (Fiero).We are in the technological era where computers, and simulations do everything for us! We think of our idea, and tell the computer what we want it to look like and the computer spits out something more creative than we could ever imagine. There is only one problem with this method of art and ease of access. Modern industries bring so many benefits to humankind, but it also threatens the global ecosystem we call home. These industries are creating pollution that is damaging every aspect of our lives. â€Å"Sulphur dioxide emissions in one part of the world affects other parts of the world, causing acid rain that damages forests, lakes, and soil.Industrial pollution poisons the entire planet’s oceans. Leaks in nuclear reactors endanger populations thousands of miles from their sites, and green house gases (produced in part from the burning of the coal, oil, and natural gas that power the world’s industries), contribute to global warming and other changes in the earth’s climate† (Fiero). Edward Osborne Wilson is an American biologist, theorist, naturalist, author, and researcher of sociobiology and biodiversity who is a leading defender of the environment. He is a landmark researcher in the study of ecological systems.E. O. Wilson was born on June 10, 1929 (Wilson 1) in Birmingham, Alabama. His early work in biology identifying the correlation between ants (and other animal societies) and human species. Wilson makes great points about the preservation of biodiversity in his book titled The Diversity of Life, â€Å"Every country has three forms of wealth: material, cultural, and biological. The first two we understand well because they are the substance of our everyday lives. The essence of the biodiversity problem is that the biological wealth is taken much less seriously.This is a major strategic error, one that will be increasingly regretted as time passes. Diversity is a potential source for immense untapped material wealth in the form of food, medicine, and amenities. The fauna and flora are also part of a country’s heritage, the product of millions of years of evolution centered on that time and place and hence as much a reason for national concern as the particularities of language and culture† (Wilson 2). This means to me that we need to stop while we are ahead. Despite the wonderful progressions technology has made for the human race, it is actually setting us back.It is making it difficult for future generations to live and thrive. The more resources we use, the less that will be left. Also, with using these resources it causes bad effects for the environment. No environment, no habitat, no human race or any other species for that matter. There are many other people who agree with Wilson’s beliefs. â€Å"The poets Gary Snyder (born 1930) and Annie Dillard (born 1943) share Wilson’s concerns for the natural environment. To essays and poems inspired in part by her love for Virginia’s Blue Ridge Mountains, Dillard brings a dimension of awe that has been called â€Å"ecospirituality. A Roman Catholic convert whose outlook is essentially pantheistic, Dillard tests the objective facts of nature agai nst her mystical appreciation of its wonders† (Fiero). As far as art in concerned Wilson’s has influenced many contemporary visual artists such as Robert Smithson. â€Å".. for instance, pioneered one of the most important ecological landmarks of the late twentieth century, the piece known as Spiral Jetty† (Fiero). The Spiral Jetty is a work of art built entirely of mud, salt crystals, basalt rocks, earth, and water on the northeastern shore of the Great Salt Lake.More importantly, and more recently green architecture has been on the rise. According to the text, this is because† Architects have always given practical consideration to the environment in which they build. Now, however, in the face of rising fuel prices, global warming, and the degradation of the ecosystem due to industrial growth, the job of designing structures that do the least possible damage to the environment (a practice known as â€Å"green† or â€Å"sustainable† design), has become even more imperative† (Fiero).This is great because I try my hardest to be â€Å"green† as far as recycling, using my own grocery bags instead of just using the plastic ones and throwing them in the garbage, and also buying products with recycled paper for labeling and their packaging. Being green is important to me as it should be for all. To conclude, globalism is closely identified with a belief. Globalism is acknowledging there are other species in the world besides our own and that future generations need to be thought of in the long run. We must preserve what we have for our children, our children’s children, and so forth.Bibliography Fiero, Gloria K. â€Å"Chapter 28 Globalism: The Contemporary World. † The Humanistic Tradition: Modernism, Postmodernism, and the Global Perspective. 6th ed. Vol. 6. New York: McGraw Hill, 2011. 153-72. Print. O’Meara, Stephen James. â€Å"E. O. Wilson boy naturalist. † Odyssey. April. 2007: 6+ . General Reference Center GOLD. Web. 16 Oct. 2012 Wilson, Edward O. Naturalist. Washington, D. C. : Island [for] Shearwater, 1994. Print. Wilson, Edward O. The Diversity of Life. Cambridge, MA: Balknap of Harvard UP, 1992. Print

Juvenile Justice Chapters 1-4 Study Guide Essay

1 Juvenile violence is generally unrelated to gang formation and presence. False 2 The actual amount of juvenile violence in the United States is unknown. True 3 Property-offender juveniles account for about 10% of all juvenile arrests annually. False 4 A policy of delaying juvenile punishments works best for juvenile rehabilitation. False 5 Juvenile courts are the same as criminal courts. False 6 Juvenile courts have prosecutors and other court personnel. True 7 The juvenile justice system does not resemble the criminal justice system. False 8 Usually the same criteria are used to define juvenile offenders in different state jurisdictions. False 9 Under parens patriae, the king as sovereign acts to protect children and other dependents. True 10 Juvenile justice has been substantially unaffected by alternative philosophies that differ from the rehabilitation emphasis. False 11 Juvenile courts are unknown in most other industrialized countries throughout the world. False 12 Over two million youths come into contact with the criminal justice system annually. True 13 Once offenders are placed in corrections, they are no longer in the criminal justice system. False 14 Jurisdiction is the power of a court to hear a case. True 15 There are about 1,000 law enforcement agencies in the United States. False 16 Almost all ordinances aimed at juveniles are status ordinances since they are not applicable for adults. True 17 Sheriff’s deputies and city police officers are the law enforcement officers who have the most amount of contact with juveniles. True 18 Juveniles who loiter late at night cannot be taken into custody by police officers for any reason since loitering is not prohibited per se. False 19 The stage where information is obtained about juvenile suspects, including their names, addresses, and ages, is called arraignment. False 20 Juveniles are not entitled to bail. False 21 ROR means released on own recognizance. True 22 Preconviction agreements between defendants and the state are known as indictments. False 23 Proceedings for establishing a trial date where a formal plea to charges is entered are alled arraignments. True 24 Exculpatory evidence is evidence that tends to show the greater guilt of a defendant. False 25 Inculpatory evidence is favorable for defendants charged with crimes. True 26 Preliminary hearings or examinations are usually conducted for the purpose of determining probable cause. True 27 The standard of proof in juvenile proceedings is preponderance of the evidence. False 28 Beyond a reasonable doubt is only aplicable to criminal proceedings. False 29 Juveniles are not entitled in any jurisdiction to a trial by jury. False 30 Aggravating circumstances might include whether or not the youth cooperate with police to help them detect and apprehend other offenders. False 31 A mitigating circumstance might be the mental health of the defendant. True 32 Corrections is all agencies and personnel who deal with convicted offenders. True 33 Probation is part of corrections. True 34 Reducing the number of jails is the goal of the jail removal initiative. False 35 Referrals of juveniles to juvenile court can only be made by police officers. False 36 Parole is a conditional release from incarceration. True 37 Because of changes in the law, there are no longer any juveniles in adult jails. False 38 About half of all juvenile cases that come before the juvenile court are handled informally. True 39 Petitions are documents directing police to arrest a particular juvenile. False 40 Police officers are prohibited by law from placing juveniles in jails, even for short periods. False 41 One reason juveniles are held in jails temporarily is that it is difficult to establish their true age on the basis of their appearance. True 42 Neighbors of youths are prohibited by law from filing complaints that might bring these youths to the attention of the juvenile court. False 43 Being arrested and taken into custody are the same thing. False 44 Intake officers can order the incarceration of any juvenile to a long-term juvenile facility if the officers believe that the juvenile is guilty of a felony. False 45 Juvenile court prosecutors have broad discretionary powers. True 46 An adjudicatory hearing is the juvenile equivalent of a criminal trial for an adult. True 47 Intake is usually presided over by the local juvenile court judge. False 48 Intake probation officers attempt to screen the more serious juvenile offenders from the less serious ones. True 49 Intake officers consider both legal and extralegal factors in intake decision making. True 50 A nominal punishment might be a verbal warning or reprimand. True 51 Secure confinement is most closely associated with probation. False 52 Doing what is best for the children is consistent with the parens patriae doctrine. True 53 Official documents that call for a youth’s subsequent appearance in juvenile court and allege carious offenses are called petitions. True 54 Juvenile court proceedings are becoming increasingly adversarial. True 55 It is often true that the greater the formality of a juvenile court proceeding, the harsher the punishment imposed by juvenile court judges. True 56 A decision about the guilt or innocence of a juvenile is called a disposition. False 57 In most jurisdictions juvenile court judges have nearly absolute discretion to determine how their particular court proceedings are conducted. True 58 Juveniles are convicted of offenses in juvenile court proceedings. False 59 An adjudication means that a juvenile will be incarcerated. False 60 All adjudications of juveniles mean that all juveniles who are adjudicated are delinquents. False 61 Over two million juveniles com into contact with the following system annually: Criminal justice 62 Regarding decisions and discretion about juvenile offenders, intake officers have: Considerable discretion 63 Which of the following are components of the criminal justice system? a) Law enforcement b) Courts c) Legislature d) All of the above 64 The word process is sometimes used to describe the criminal justice system. This is because the criminal justice system is : a) a sequence of people-processing stages. b) loosely coordinated. c) fragmented. d) all of the above. 65 The power of courts to hear particular kinds of cases is called: Jurisdiction 66 The largest component of the criminal justice system is: Law enforcement 67 A conditional disposition would be: Probation 68 The juvenile equivalent of an adult sentence is called a(n): Disposition 69 Juveniles may be: a) arrested. b) taken to shelters and group homes. c) taken into custody. d) all of the above. 70 When juveniles are apprehended by police for suspicion and not necessarily for any particular crime, they are: Taken into custody. 71 Obtaining one’s name, address, fingerprints, photograph, and other vital information is a part of what process? Booking 72 Detentions and secure confinement almost always follow: a) a finding of guilt b) intake c) adjudications d) none of the above 73 ROR means: Released on own recognizance 74 Preconviction agreements involving guilty pleas ans favorable sentencing are: Plea bargains 75 Defendants who are most likely to be released on ROR are those: Who are employed, white, middle-class females 76 Sureties that are posted to guarantee one’s subsequent appearance in court are called: Bailbonds 77 Evidence that is favorable to the prosecution against a violent defendant is called: Inculpatory 78 Evidence that is favorable to the defense in a criminal case is called; Exculpatory 79 Circumstances that might make the punishment imposed by a sentencing judge more severe would be: Aggravating 80 Determining that a crime was committed and that a particular person or persons probably committed the crime is: Probable cause 81 Preliminary hearings are held primarily for the purpose of establishing: Probable cause 82 The standard of proof in criminal proceedings is: Beyond a reasonable doubt 83 Juries that determine one’s guilt or innocence are called: Grand juries 84 Circumstances that tend to lessen punishments imposed by judges during sentencing are: Mitigating 85 The assemblage of agencies and persons who supervise offenders after court proceedings might likely be called: Corrections 86 A conditional nonincarcerative alternative for a first offender convicted of a crime is: Probation 87 A mitigating circumstance might be: a) one’s youthfulness. b) cooperating with police officers to detect other criminals c) mental illness d) all of the above 88 An aggravating circumstance might be: Being a gang leader 89 The jail removal initiative is aimed at: Reducing or eliminating juvenile confinement in jails 90 Being taken into custody and being arrested are: Different in meaning 91 Official documents filed with juvenile court that allege that a certain juvenile is delinquent are called: Petitions 92 A finding by a grand jury that a crime has been committed and that a particular person may have committed the crime is called: True bill 93 A judgement in juvenile court is called: Adjudication 94 When a stern reprimand is given as a sentence in a juvenile court proceeding, the juvenile has been: Adjudicated 95 A conditional diposition might be: a) participation in group therapy b) payment of victim compensation c) community service d) all of the above 96 Criminal informations are typically filed by: Prosecutors 97 An industrial school placement of a juvenile is commensurate with what type of placement for adult offenders? Prison 98 The standard of proof in juvenile courts, where juveniles are not in jeopardy of losing their liberty, is: Preponderance of evidence 99 Common law in the United States was derived from: England 100 Parens patriae means: â€Å"The father of the country† 101 A standard definition of delinquency: a) exists for all juridictions b) is consistant throughout all states and the federal system c) limits delinquents to all those under age 18 d) none of the above 102 Offenses committed by juveniles that would not be crimes if committed by adults are called: Status offenses 103 It can be said of all juveniles delinquents that they: Commit crimes 104 Deinstitutionalization generally means to: Remove juveniles from custodial institutions 105 In most jurisdictions, juveniles can be charged with crimes at age: a) 18 b) 20 c) 19 d) all of the above 106 Persons under the age of 7 were presumed capable of formulating criminal intent under common law. False 107 Common law emerged in the American colonies in the 1600s. False 108 A shire is the chief law enforcement officer of an English country. False 109 Reeves are English countries. False 110 Chancellors were officials in England who administered the affairs fo the King in different remote areas. True 111 Transportation was a method used by England to rid itself of criminals. True 112 The Birdwell Workhouse was the first juvenile reformatory. False 113 Poor laws were used to incarcerate debtors for indefinite periods. True 114 The poor laws targeted the socioeconomically disadvantaged. True 115 One example of the voluntary slavery pattern is the indentured servant. True 116 The Hospital of St. Michael was the first hospital to treat juvenile diseases. False 117 The Walnut Street Jail was known for its terrible living conditions for inmates. False 118 Solitary confinement is a recent concept created during the early 1940s in U.S. prisons. False 119 Child-savers were drawn largely from the lower socioeconomic classes. False 120 Hard-core delinquents were targeted for treatment in houses of refuge. True 121 The power of the state over the family in child custody cases was illustrated in the case of Ex parte Crouse. True 122 The case of O’Connell v. Turner had to do with child abuse and neglect. False 123 The founder of Hull House was Jane Addams. True 124 Truants are persons who have run away from home and are considered untreatable. False 125 An example of voluntary servitude was the indentured servant. True 126 The first juvenile court was established in Illinois in !899. True 127 By the end of the Korean War, only ;half of all states had juvenile courts. False 128 The Compulsory School Act created children’s tribunals. False 129 Prior to juvenile courts, juvenile affairs were administered largely by social service agencies. True 130 Juvenile courts in most jurisdictions operate the same way. False 131 One of the most influential philanthropic organizations of the eighteenth century upon correctional practices was the Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the Miseries fo Public Persons. True 132 Small communities were known for their Gesellschaft atmosphere. False 133 Juveniles viewed as chattel meant that they were counted like so much farm property and livestock. True 134 Sweat shops exploited juvenile labor during the late 1800s and early 1900s. True 135 Throughout much of the 20th century, juveniles had little or no legal standing in U.S. courts. True 136 Efficient juvenile offender proceedings is sometimes called actuarial justice. True 137 Jurisdiction usually refers to the power of a court to hear particular kinds of cases. True 138 For a majority of the states, the upper age limit for juvenile courts is 21. False 139 Status offenders would include all juveniles who commit acts that would be crimes if adults committed them. False 140 The power of juvenile court judges is such that juvenile delinquency may be whatever they say it is. True 141 The parens patriae doctrine has had little influence on juveniles and juvenile courts. False 142 The get-tough movement is a response to perceived escalating juvenile violence by interested citizens. True 143 In most juvenile courts, juveniles are convicted of various offenses following an adjudicatory hearing. False 144 Almost every juvenile court is a court of record. False 145 Juvenile court jurisdiction is the same among different local and state legislative definitions of juvenile offenders. False 146 All jurisdictions have the same lower age limits for juveniles. False 147 The most common age of accountability in the U.S. is 21. False 148 Delinquency is an act committed by a juvenile which would be a status offense if committed by an adult. False 149 Compared with runaways, curfew violators tend to be more serious offenders. True 150 Virtually all runaways are pretty much the same in terms of their social and personal characteristics. False 151 Stigmas usually result in juveniles defining themselves as deviant or delinquent. True 152 Truants and liquor law violators are more inclined to be chronic offenders compared with runaways. True 153 Stigmatization is closely associated with labeling theory. True 154 Staus offenders may become criminals if they violate court orders. True 155 Studies of runaway behavior show that most runaways are well adjusted youths who want to make it on their own. False 156 Decarceration means to separate juvenile delinquents from status offenders by placing them in different cells in juvenile prisons. False 157 Diversion programs are especially helpful in the cases of dependent and neglected children. True 158 Under divestiture status offenders are removed from secure institutions. False 159 One unfavorable implication of DSO is net-widening. True 160 Recidivism is associated with the chronicity of offending. True 161 Self-reports suggest that there is considerable career escalation from status offending to criminal offending. False 162 An important factor associated with recidivism is frequent contact with juvenile courts. True 163 Contact with juvenile courts is believed by many experts to stigmatize youths with self-definitions of delinquency. True 164 Relabeling occurs when police officers relabel innocent juvenile behaviors and interpret them as delinquent behaviors. True 165 The Uniform Crime Report typically underestimates the amount of juveniles offending. True 166 DSO has caused drastic increases in the rate of recidivism among juvenile offenders. False 167 An incident consists of multiple acts involving a single victim. False 168 A victimization is a single criminal act that affects a single victim. True 169 The National Crime Victimization Survey is a compilation of reported by all law enforcement agencies. False 170 Cleared by arrest means that someone has been arrested for a particular crime. True 171 One weakness of the UCR is that not all law enforcement agencies report crimes in the same way. True 172 Self-report information is believed to by some juvenile justice experts to be a more accurate indication of how much delinquency exists. True 173 The Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics publishes no information about juvenile offenses. False 174 Self-reports are reports filed by principals detailing the amount of crime committed by students on their campuses. True 175 One problem with self-report information is that juveniles may exaggerate the amount of crime they commit. True 176 The National Youth Survey has been discounted frequently by professionals as an unreliable data source regarding juvenile offending behaviors. False 177 Self-reports of delinquency often disclose what has been termed hidden delinquency. True 178 A study of youths who reported that they smoked cigarettes frequently showed that many of these youths had not actually smoked cigarettes and had lied about this behavior. True 179 School violence has pretty much een eliminated as the result of more sophisticated surveillance systems in schools and closer student monitoring by police. False 180 Most school violence is fatal. False 181 There is a clear pattern of career escalation among status offenders who typically graduate to juvenile delinquency. False 182 Chronic violent offenders are usually those juveniles who are arrested at least four or more times for violent offenses. True 183 The formation of gangs is a phenomenon almost exclusively confined to the large cities of Los Angeles, New York, Boston, ans Chicago. False 184 At-risk youth tend to have personality problems and exhibit poor social adjustment. True 185 Gangs usually form along racial or ethnic lines. True 186 Juveniles who commit homicide are relatively rare. True 187 About 50% of all youth deaths have been attributable to firearms. True 188 Pathways are developmental sequences over the course of one’s adolescence. True 189 There are few, if any, differences between female and male delinquent offending patterns. False 190 Growing numbers of female juvenile are entering the juvenile justice system annually. True 191 The most common reason for females joining female gangs is for protection. True 192 Female rather than male delinquents are more likely to receive paternalistic treatment from juvenile court judges. True 193 A significant feature of early juvenile courts was their emphasis on: Confidentiality 194 Common law was established during: Medieval England 195 Juvenile courts are courts of: Limited Jurisdiction 196 Referring to the juvenile justice system as a â€Å"system† is problematic for some juvenile justice professionals primarily because: The juvenile justice system components are only loosely coordinated 197 Below what age under English common law are children not held accountable for their actions? 7 198 A sheriff in early England was called a: Reeve 199 Indentured servants often entered servitude voluntarily for the purpose of: Gaining passage to the new colonies 200 The Poor Laws were most closely associated with: Debtor’s Prisons 201 Responsible for many of the jail and prison reforms in early England were the: Quakers 202 The Walnut Street Jail was innovative in that it: a) segregated male from female inmates b) segregated more serious offenders for less serious ones c) created solitary confinement d) all of the above 203 The Philadelphia Society for Alleviating the Miseries of Public Prisons was sponsored by the: Quakers 204 The Hospital of Saint Michael was a famous: Correctional facility in Italy to punish unruly youths 205 The Hospital of Saint Michael was known for its use of: Corporal Punishment 206 The child-saving movement sought to: Provide shelter to wayward youths 207 Houses of refuge targeted: Status Offenders 208 Ex parte Crouse dealt with: Family rights relating to the control of their children 209 Truancy statutes were aimed at: Youths who avoided attending school 210 The Uniform Crime Reports publishes information about: a)juvenile delinquency b)reported crime c)felonies and misdemeanors d) all of the above 211 According to the Uniform Crime Reports, juvenile offense patterns are: Different among most states 212 Self-reports of delinquency differ from reported delinquency in the Uniform Crime Reports in that self-reports disclose: Higher delinquency than reported 213 The federal juvenile court is called: The federal government has no juvenile court 214 Truancy is: A status offense 215 In our current system of juvenile justice, a six-year-old murderer is likely to be: Treated 216 A status offense for an adult offender would likely be: Vagrancy 217 What best typifies runaway behavior? It is difficult to explain. 218 The â€Å"unsettling age† of runaway behavior is: The first few days away from home 219 More inclined to become chronic offenders are: Truants 220 Stigmas among certain juveniles result in: Unfavorable labeling by others 221 Stigmatizing youths is believed to be one consequence of: Frequent contact with juvenile courts 222 Deinstitutionalizing status offenders means: Removal of status offenders from institutions 223 Labeling theory has done much to account for:q Diversion 224 One of the most sweeping reforms in juvenile justice in recent years is: DSO 225 Undre full divestiture juvenile court judges can do what to status offenders? a) place them on probation b) confine them to institutions c) adjudicate them d) none of the above 226 Whenever police officers redefine innocent juvenile behaviors as delinquent behaviors, this process is: Re-labeling 227 When certain youths are pulled into the juvenile justice system and community programs simply because those programs exist, this is known as: Net-widening 228 One major problem with the Uniform Crime Reports is that: Not all agencies report crime regularly 229 An index offense would be: a) arson b) murder c) robbery d) all of the above 230 A crime punishable by more than one year of incarceration would be a: Felony 231 The National Crime Victimization Survey is a reflection of the amount of: a) aggravated assaults committed by juveniles b) rapes committed by juveniles c) murders committed by juveniles d) none of the above 232 Crimes that are cleared by arrest usually lead to: a) long jail terms b) convictions c) short jail terms d) none of the above 233 Self-report information is: a) potentially unreliable b) constitutional c) voluntary d) all of the above 234 When a crime is committed and a single victim is involved, it is called: Victimization 235 The Uniform Crime Reports may reflect: a) arrest statistics b) police offender activity c) crime trends d) all of the above 236 The Uniform Crime Reports report: Arrests 237 Perhaps one of the most accurate statements we can make about the Uniform Crime Reports is that they: Seriously underestimate the true amount of crime nationally 238 The National Youth Survey is an example of the use of: Self-reports 239 Regarding the relation between the type of juvenile offending behavior and career escalation, the results of scientific research are: Inconsistant 240 Self-reports are likely inaccurate because: Juveniles tend to brag about cries they have not committed 241 Most school violence results in: Nonlethal injuries 242 At-risk youths tend to be: a) overachievers in school b) socially well-adjusted c) affluent d) none of the above 243 Gangs tend to form along: a) racial lines b) gender lines c) ethnic lines d) all of the above 244 Developmental sequences over the term of one’s adolescence are called: Pathways 245 Female juveniles tend to: a) commit less violent acts b) have prior histories of physical or sexual abuse c) be more passive in their offending d) all of the above 246 One myth about female juvenile offenders is that much of their offending involves: Violent offending 247 Theories have nothing to do with predicting social behaviors False 248 Theories may predict as well as explain. True 249 It is very likely that relationships exist between theories of delinquency and various types of juvenile delinquency intervention programs. True